A variegated form of Pagoda Dogwood, this cultivar is distinguished by its horizontally tiered branching structure and vibrant foliage. The plant displays leaves edged with a golden hue, providing a striking contrast against the deeper green interior. This coloration intensifies in sunlight, offering an aesthetic appeal throughout the growing season.
The inclusion of this plant in landscape design contributes visual interest and structural diversity. Its unique form serves as a focal point in gardens or naturalized settings. Historically, the species has been valued for its adaptability to various soil conditions and its appeal to wildlife, including birds and beneficial insects. Its resilience and attractive appearance make it a sought-after choice for both residential and commercial properties.
The subsequent sections will delve into the specific cultivation techniques necessary for optimal growth, common pests and diseases that may affect it, and considerations for its integration into different landscape styles. This will provide a practical guide for ensuring the health and longevity of this ornamental tree.
1. Variegated Foliage
Variegated foliage, characterized by the presence of differently colored zones within a single leaf, is a defining feature of the cornus alternifolia golden shadows. This characteristic distinguishes it from the standard species and contributes significantly to its ornamental value. The distinct patterns and coloration influence both aesthetic appeal and physiological function.
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Pigmentation Distribution
The variegation in cornus alternifolia golden shadows results from the irregular distribution of chlorophyll and other pigments. Specifically, the golden edges of the leaves lack chlorophyll, rendering those areas incapable of photosynthesis. This distribution pattern is genetically determined and consistently expressed under normal growing conditions.
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Light Interaction
The variegated sections of the leaves interact differently with light compared to the green areas. The absence of chlorophyll in the golden margins means they reflect more light, which contributes to the plant’s bright, eye-catching appearance. This higher light reflection can also impact the overall leaf temperature and transpiration rate.
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Photosynthetic Efficiency
Because variegated areas lack chlorophyll, the photosynthetic efficiency of the leaf as a whole is reduced compared to a fully green leaf. The plant compensates for this reduction by increasing the photosynthetic rate in the green areas and by optimizing leaf display to maximize light capture. Adequate sunlight is essential to support this compensatory mechanism.
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Landscape Impact
The variegated foliage of cornus alternifolia golden shadows enhances its landscape value, providing a bright and contrasting visual element within a garden setting. The golden edges catch the light, creating a dynamic play of color and texture that changes throughout the day and seasons. This feature makes it a popular choice for adding visual interest to shaded or partially shaded areas.
In summary, the variegated foliage of the cornus alternifolia golden shadows is more than just a decorative trait. It represents a complex interaction between genetics, physiology, and environmental factors, ultimately shaping the plant’s appearance and ecological role. Understanding the nuances of this variegation allows for informed horticultural practices that can optimize its growth and enhance its aesthetic contribution to the landscape.
2. Horizontal branching
The defining characteristic of cornus alternifolia golden shadows, beyond its variegated foliage, is its distinctive horizontal branching pattern. This growth habit results in a tiered or layered appearance, often described as pagoda-like. The branches extend outward in relatively flat planes, creating a visually striking silhouette, particularly during the dormant season. The precise mechanism driving this pattern is a combination of genetic predisposition and hormonal regulation within the plant, leading to preferential bud development along specific axes.
The horizontal branching is not merely an aesthetic attribute; it plays a functional role in light capture and resource allocation. The tiered structure minimizes self-shading, allowing each leaf to receive optimal sunlight for photosynthesis. This efficient light interception is crucial for the plant’s overall health and vigor, especially given the reduced photosynthetic capacity of the variegated foliage. Furthermore, the open architecture promotes air circulation, reducing the risk of fungal diseases. Examples of similar branching patterns in other plant species, such as Acer palmatum, demonstrate the evolutionary advantage of this morphology in specific environments.
Understanding the importance of horizontal branching is essential for proper pruning and maintenance. Incorrect pruning can disrupt the natural form and diminish the plant’s aesthetic appeal. The goal should be to remove any crossing or inward-growing branches while maintaining the overall tiered structure. This understanding also informs landscape design decisions, as the unique form dictates its best use as a specimen tree or focal point. Preserving and enhancing this characteristic branching pattern is key to realizing the full ornamental potential of cornus alternifolia golden shadows.
3. Partial Shade
Partial shade is a critical environmental factor influencing the health, vigor, and aesthetic appeal of cornus alternifolia golden shadows. Understanding its role is essential for ensuring optimal growth and longevity of this plant within designed landscapes.
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Light Intensity and Photosynthesis
Partial shade, defined as approximately 4-6 hours of direct sunlight per day, provides sufficient light for photosynthesis in cornus alternifolia golden shadows without causing excessive stress. The variegated foliage, with reduced chlorophyll content in the golden margins, necessitates a balance between light capture and protection from intense solar radiation. Excessive direct sunlight can lead to leaf scorch, damaging the delicate variegated portions.
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Temperature Regulation
The cooler temperatures associated with partial shade help to regulate the plant’s internal temperature. Excessive heat, especially during the hottest part of the day, can increase water loss through transpiration, leading to dehydration and stress. Partial shade mitigates this effect, allowing the plant to maintain a more consistent moisture balance, contributing to overall health and resilience.
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Soil Moisture Retention
Areas receiving partial shade generally experience slower rates of evaporation from the soil surface. This increased soil moisture retention is beneficial for cornus alternifolia golden shadows, which prefers consistently moist, well-drained soil. Sufficient soil moisture is essential for nutrient uptake and overall plant vigor. Conversely, planting in full sun can lead to rapid soil drying, necessitating more frequent irrigation.
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Disease Resistance
Partial shade indirectly contributes to disease resistance in cornus alternifolia golden shadows. Plants grown in optimal light conditions are generally more vigorous and better able to withstand disease pressures. Excessive shade, however, can create overly humid conditions that favor the development of fungal diseases. Therefore, a balance is crucial for maintaining plant health and minimizing susceptibility to pathogens.
The relationship between partial shade and cornus alternifolia golden shadows is a complex interplay of light intensity, temperature regulation, soil moisture retention, and disease resistance. Choosing a planting location that provides the appropriate amount of shade is paramount for ensuring the plant’s long-term health and aesthetic contribution to the landscape. Careful consideration of these factors allows for informed horticultural practices that optimize growth and enhance the plant’s natural beauty.
4. Well-drained soil
The health and longevity of cornus alternifolia golden shadows are inextricably linked to the presence of well-drained soil. This cultivar, like many members of the Cornus genus, exhibits a sensitivity to waterlogged conditions. The presence of poorly draining soil creates an anaerobic environment around the root system, impeding the uptake of essential nutrients and predisposing the plant to root rot, a potentially fatal fungal disease. In practical terms, this means that heavy clay soils, or areas with a high water table, must be amended to improve drainage before planting. Failure to do so typically results in stunted growth, chlorosis (yellowing of leaves), and eventual decline. Real-life examples abound where seemingly healthy specimens of cornus alternifolia golden shadows planted in improperly prepared soils succumb to root rot within a few growing seasons.
The importance of well-drained soil extends beyond the prevention of root rot. It also influences the availability of oxygen to the roots, which is crucial for respiration and energy production. When soil is saturated, oxygen is displaced by water, depriving the roots of this vital element. This leads to a cascade of physiological effects, including reduced nutrient absorption and impaired overall growth. In contrast, well-drained soil allows for adequate aeration, fostering a healthy root system capable of efficiently extracting water and nutrients from the soil. Furthermore, the structure of well-drained soil promotes beneficial microbial activity, enhancing nutrient cycling and overall soil health, thereby creating a more favorable environment for cornus alternifolia golden shadows.
In summary, the provision of well-drained soil is not merely a recommendation but a fundamental requirement for the successful cultivation of cornus alternifolia golden shadows. Understanding the underlying mechanisms by which soil drainage affects root health and overall plant vigor is essential for informed horticultural practices. While other factors such as sunlight and fertilization play a role, the absence of well-drained soil represents a primary limiting factor that can negate the benefits of all other interventions. Therefore, careful site assessment and soil preparation are paramount for ensuring the long-term health and aesthetic contribution of this ornamental tree.
5. Spring blooms
Spring blooms represent a significant aesthetic and ecological component of cornus alternifolia golden shadows. The appearance of these flowers marks the transition from dormancy to active growth and contributes to the plant’s overall ornamental value, as well as providing a vital resource for pollinators. The timing, abundance, and characteristics of these blooms are influenced by environmental factors and are integral to the plant’s reproductive cycle.
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Floral Morphology and Appearance
The spring blooms of cornus alternifolia golden shadows are characterized by clusters of small, creamy-white flowers arranged in flat-topped cymes. These cymes typically measure 2 to 3 inches in diameter and are composed of numerous individual flowers, each approximately 1/4 inch across. The overall effect is a delicate, lace-like appearance that contrasts effectively with the variegated foliage. The blooms lack significant fragrance, relying primarily on visual cues to attract pollinators.
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Pollinator Attraction
While lacking strong fragrance, the spring blooms serve as an important early-season food source for a variety of pollinators, including bees, flies, and small beetles. The light color and open structure of the cymes facilitate access to nectar and pollen. Pollination is essential for fruit set, which subsequently provides food for birds and other wildlife later in the season. The abundance and diversity of pollinators attracted to the blooms can contribute to the overall biodiversity of the surrounding ecosystem.
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Bloom Timing and Duration
The timing of spring blooms in cornus alternifolia golden shadows is highly dependent on local climate and weather conditions. Typically, flowering occurs in late spring to early summer, following the emergence of new leaves. The duration of the bloom period is relatively short, lasting approximately 1 to 2 weeks. Unfavorable weather, such as late frosts, can significantly reduce bloom quantity or even damage developing flowers, impacting subsequent fruit production. Records from botanical gardens and arboretums indicate regional variations in bloom times, reflecting differing climatic conditions.
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Influence on Fruit Development
Successful pollination of the spring blooms is essential for the development of the plant’s characteristic red berries. The number of berries produced is directly correlated with the number of flowers successfully pollinated. These berries serve as a valuable food source for various bird species during the late summer and fall months, aiding in seed dispersal and contributing to the plant’s reproductive success. Insufficient pollination can result in sparse berry production, reducing the plant’s aesthetic appeal and its ecological value to wildlife.
In conclusion, the spring blooms of cornus alternifolia golden shadows represent a critical stage in the plant’s life cycle and contribute significantly to its ornamental and ecological value. The characteristics of these blooms, their attractiveness to pollinators, and their influence on fruit development are all interconnected, highlighting the importance of understanding and managing the factors that affect flowering. While the blooms themselves are short-lived, their impact on the plant’s subsequent growth, reproduction, and interaction with the environment is substantial.
6. Red Berries
Following the spring blooms of cornus alternifolia golden shadows, the development of red berries represents a crucial phase in the plant’s reproductive cycle and significantly contributes to its ecological role. These berries, small drupes approximately inch in diameter, emerge in late summer and mature by early fall, forming vibrant clusters that provide a striking visual contrast against the variegated foliage. The formation and abundance of these berries are directly dependent on successful pollination during the flowering period, underscoring the interconnectedness of these two stages. Real-world examples illustrate that specimens experiencing poor pollination rates, often due to adverse weather conditions during bloom, exhibit a corresponding reduction in berry production. This diminished berry yield not only impacts the aesthetic appeal of the plant but also limits its value as a food source for wildlife.
The red berries of cornus alternifolia golden shadows serve as a vital food resource for a variety of bird species, including robins, thrushes, and woodpeckers, particularly during the fall migration period and the onset of winter. These birds consume the berries, aiding in seed dispersal and contributing to the plant’s propagation. Studies have shown that the nutritional content of the berries, rich in lipids and carbohydrates, provides essential energy reserves for these avian species. Furthermore, the presence of these berries attracts birds to the vicinity, enhancing the biodiversity of the surrounding area. Plantings of cornus alternifolia golden shadows in parks, gardens, and naturalized landscapes therefore play a role in supporting local bird populations and promoting ecological balance. Improper or excessive pruning, which removes flowering wood, can reduce berry production, negatively impacting the plant’s ecological contribution.
In summary, the red berries of cornus alternifolia golden shadows are more than just an ornamental feature; they are a critical component of the plant’s life cycle and a key resource for wildlife. Understanding the factors that influence berry production, such as pollination rates and proper pruning techniques, is essential for maximizing the plant’s ecological and aesthetic benefits. Challenges such as habitat loss and climate change pose potential threats to both the plant and the bird species that rely on its berries, highlighting the importance of conservation efforts and responsible landscape management. The interconnectedness of these elements underscores the significance of considering the ecological implications of horticultural practices.
7. Moderate growth
The growth rate of cornus alternifolia golden shadows is typically described as moderate, influencing its integration into landscape designs and management strategies. This characteristic, relative to fast-growing or slow-growing tree species, offers both advantages and considerations for horticultural practices. The pace of development affects not only the plant’s size over time but also its resource requirements and overall maintenance needs.
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Predictable Size and Space Planning
The moderate growth rate facilitates predictable size attainment at maturity. Cornus alternifolia golden shadows generally reaches a height and spread of 15-25 feet over a period of several years. This predictability allows for informed space planning in gardens and landscapes, minimizing the risk of the tree outgrowing its intended location or competing with neighboring plants. For instance, a landscape architect can accurately determine the mature size of the tree and allocate sufficient space to accommodate its growth without compromising the design’s overall aesthetic or functionality.
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Reduced Pruning Requirements
Compared to fast-growing species, cornus alternifolia golden shadows‘s moderate growth rate translates to reduced pruning requirements. While regular formative pruning may be necessary to maintain its desired shape and remove any dead or damaged branches, extensive pruning to control its size is typically not required. This reduces labor costs associated with maintenance and minimizes the risk of inadvertently damaging the tree’s natural form. Examples from well-maintained gardens demonstrate that minimal intervention is often sufficient to preserve the tree’s aesthetic appeal.
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Slower Resource Demand
The moderate growth rate corresponds to a slower rate of resource consumption, including water and nutrients. While adequate irrigation and fertilization are still necessary, the plant’s overall demand is less intensive than that of fast-growing species. This makes it a more sustainable choice for water-conscious landscapes or in areas with limited nutrient availability. Furthermore, the slower resource demand reduces the risk of nutrient imbalances or deficiencies that can negatively impact plant health and appearance.
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Gradual Establishment and Adaptation
The moderate growth rate allows for a gradual establishment and adaptation period following planting. This slow and steady approach enables the plant to develop a strong root system and acclimate to its new environment without experiencing excessive stress. Real-world observations indicate that cornus alternifolia golden shadows exhibits greater resilience to environmental fluctuations and is less susceptible to transplant shock compared to faster-growing species. This increased resilience enhances its long-term survival and success in various landscape settings.
The moderate growth rate of cornus alternifolia golden shadows represents a balanced combination of aesthetic appeal, practical management, and ecological sustainability. By understanding the implications of this characteristic, landscape professionals and homeowners can make informed decisions regarding its integration into designed environments and ensure its long-term health and success. Its predictable size, reduced pruning requirements, slower resource demand, and gradual establishment contribute to its desirability as an ornamental tree that is both visually striking and relatively easy to maintain.
8. Wildlife attraction
The attractiveness of cornus alternifolia golden shadows to wildlife stems from the combined effect of its structural characteristics and its provision of food and shelter. The tiered branching pattern provides nesting sites and refuge for various bird species, while the spring blooms offer nectar and pollen for insects. The subsequent development of red berries furnishes a vital food source during the late summer and fall, attracting a range of avian and mammalian species. The presence of this plant in a landscape directly contributes to increased biodiversity by supporting local fauna. Observations in naturalized settings reveal that areas with established cornus alternifolia golden shadows exhibit a higher abundance and diversity of bird species compared to areas lacking this plant.
The ecological significance of this attraction extends beyond simple sustenance. Bird species attracted to the berries contribute to seed dispersal, facilitating the plant’s propagation and expansion into new areas. The presence of pollinators attracted to the flowers enhances the reproductive success of not only cornus alternifolia golden shadows but also other flowering plants in the vicinity. Furthermore, the plant’s structure provides habitat for beneficial insects, contributing to natural pest control within the landscape. Therefore, the deliberate inclusion of this cultivar in designed environments can serve as a valuable tool for promoting ecological health and resilience.
In conclusion, the wildlife attraction of cornus alternifolia golden shadows is a multi-faceted benefit that underscores its value in landscape design and ecological restoration. The combination of food, shelter, and structural habitat creates a positive feedback loop, fostering biodiversity and promoting a healthy ecosystem. However, challenges such as habitat fragmentation and the introduction of invasive species can diminish its effectiveness. Careful consideration of these factors and the implementation of responsible landscape management practices are essential for maximizing its contribution to wildlife conservation and ensuring the long-term sustainability of this beneficial interaction.
9. Disease resistance
Disease resistance in cornus alternifolia golden shadows is a crucial factor influencing its long-term health and suitability for landscape applications. While not entirely immune to diseases, this cultivar generally exhibits a degree of resistance to common ailments affecting dogwoods, contributing to its overall robustness and ease of maintenance.
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Anthracnose Resistance
Anthracnose, a fungal disease that can cause leaf spots, twig dieback, and overall decline in dogwoods, poses a significant threat to susceptible species. Cornus alternifolia golden shadows exhibits a notable level of resistance to anthracnose compared to other dogwood varieties. This resistance reduces the need for preventative fungicide treatments, minimizing chemical inputs and promoting a more sustainable approach to landscape management. Observations in areas with high anthracnose incidence confirm that this cultivar often remains relatively unaffected, while other dogwoods suffer significant damage.
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Dogwood Borer Susceptibility
While exhibiting resistance to some foliar diseases, cornus alternifolia golden shadows is still susceptible to the dogwood borer, a clearwing moth larva that tunnels into the tree’s trunk and branches. Infestations can weaken the tree, making it more vulnerable to other stresses and diseases. Regular monitoring for signs of borer activity, such as sawdust-like frass near entry holes, is crucial for early detection and treatment. Horticultural oil applications or insecticidal controls may be necessary to manage infestations and prevent significant damage.
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Powdery Mildew Tolerance
Powdery mildew, a fungal disease that causes a white, powdery coating on leaves, can affect cornus alternifolia golden shadows, particularly in humid conditions with poor air circulation. However, the cultivar generally exhibits a degree of tolerance, meaning that while infection may occur, it typically does not cause significant damage or defoliation. Improving air circulation through selective pruning and ensuring adequate sunlight exposure can further minimize the risk of powdery mildew outbreaks.
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Root Rot Prevention Through Proper Drainage
Although not directly a disease resistance trait, the importance of well-drained soil in preventing root rot cannot be overstated. Cornus alternifolia golden shadows is susceptible to root rot in waterlogged conditions, making proper site selection and soil preparation critical for its long-term health. Ensuring that the planting site provides adequate drainage minimizes the risk of root rot, reducing the likelihood of disease-related decline and mortality. Amending heavy clay soils with organic matter can improve drainage and create a more favorable environment for root growth.
The combination of anthracnose resistance and powdery mildew tolerance contributes to the overall ease of care associated with cornus alternifolia golden shadows. However, its susceptibility to dogwood borers and the importance of preventing root rot through proper drainage highlight the need for vigilance and proactive management. By understanding the plant’s disease profile and implementing appropriate preventative measures, landscape professionals and homeowners can ensure the long-term health and aesthetic value of this ornamental tree.
Frequently Asked Questions
This section addresses common inquiries regarding the selection, cultivation, and maintenance of Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows, providing concise, evidence-based answers to ensure informed horticultural practices.
Question 1: What are the optimal planting conditions for Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows?
This plant thrives in partial shade, requiring approximately 4-6 hours of direct sunlight daily. Well-drained soil is essential to prevent root rot. Soil pH should ideally be slightly acidic to neutral. Amend heavy clay soils with organic matter to improve drainage and aeration. Planting in a location sheltered from strong winds is also recommended to protect the delicate branching structure.
Question 2: How should Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows be pruned?
Pruning should focus on maintaining the plant’s natural tiered shape and removing any dead, damaged, or crossing branches. Pruning is best performed during the dormant season (late winter or early spring). Avoid excessive pruning, as this can disrupt the plant’s form and reduce flowering. Focus on selective thinning to improve air circulation and light penetration.
Question 3: What are the common pests and diseases affecting Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows?
While relatively disease-resistant, this plant can be susceptible to dogwood borers. Monitor the trunk and branches for signs of infestation, such as sawdust-like frass. Preventative measures include maintaining plant vigor and applying appropriate insecticides when necessary. Powdery mildew may occur in humid conditions, but is generally not a significant problem. Root rot can be a concern in poorly drained soils.
Question 4: How often should Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows be watered?
Watering frequency depends on soil type, climate, and rainfall. Newly planted trees require more frequent watering to establish a strong root system. Established trees should be watered deeply during periods of drought. Avoid overwatering, as this can lead to root rot. Mulching around the base of the tree helps to retain soil moisture and regulate soil temperature.
Question 5: What is the mature size of Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows?
This plant typically reaches a mature height and spread of 15-25 feet. The growth rate is moderate, allowing for predictable size attainment over several years. Consider the mature size when selecting a planting location to ensure adequate space for the tree to thrive.
Question 6: Is Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows deer resistant?
Deer resistance can vary depending on local deer populations and food availability. While not completely deer-proof, Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows is generally considered to be moderately deer-resistant. Protective measures, such as fencing or deer repellents, may be necessary in areas with high deer pressure.
In summary, successful cultivation of Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows relies on providing suitable planting conditions, implementing proper pruning techniques, monitoring for pests and diseases, and maintaining adequate watering practices. With appropriate care, this ornamental tree can thrive and contribute to the aesthetic and ecological value of the landscape.
The subsequent section will delve into design considerations for integrating this cultivar into various landscape styles.
Cultivation Tips for Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows
This section outlines crucial tips for ensuring the healthy growth and aesthetic appeal of Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows. Adherence to these guidelines maximizes the plant’s potential within landscape designs.
Tip 1: Prioritize Well-Drained Soil.
The single most critical factor for success is well-drained soil. This cultivar is highly susceptible to root rot in waterlogged conditions. Amend heavy clay soils with organic matter to improve drainage before planting. Site selection should prioritize areas where water does not accumulate after rainfall.
Tip 2: Provide Partial Shade.
While tolerant of some sun, Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows performs best in partial shade. Excessive direct sunlight can scorch the variegated foliage. A location receiving morning sun and afternoon shade is ideal. Monitor the plant for signs of sun stress, such as leaf browning or wilting.
Tip 3: Implement Regular Monitoring for Dogwood Borers.
This plant is susceptible to dogwood borers, which can weaken the tree and make it vulnerable to other stresses. Inspect the trunk and branches regularly for signs of borer activity, such as small holes and sawdust-like frass. Implement appropriate control measures, such as insecticide applications, if necessary.
Tip 4: Prune Judiciously.
Pruning should be minimal, focusing on removing dead, damaged, or crossing branches. Prune during the dormant season to minimize stress on the plant. Avoid excessive pruning, as this can disrupt the plant’s natural tiered shape and reduce flowering. Selective thinning is preferred over heavy shearing.
Tip 5: Ensure Adequate Watering During Establishment.
Newly planted Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows requires consistent watering to establish a strong root system. Water deeply and regularly, especially during dry periods. Once established, the plant is more drought-tolerant but still benefits from supplemental watering during extended droughts.
Tip 6: Mulch Appropriately.
Apply a layer of organic mulch around the base of the tree to retain soil moisture, regulate soil temperature, and suppress weed growth. Avoid piling mulch directly against the trunk, as this can create a favorable environment for pests and diseases. Use a mulch that decomposes slowly, such as shredded bark or wood chips.
Adhering to these cultivation tips maximizes the potential of Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows, ensuring its health, vigor, and aesthetic contribution to the landscape.
The concluding section offers final considerations for the successful integration of this plant into various garden settings.
Final Considerations
This exploration has highlighted essential aspects of Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows, from its distinctive variegated foliage and tiered branching to its environmental needs and wildlife benefits. The successful integration of this cultivar into landscape design requires careful consideration of its specific requirements, including well-drained soil, partial shade, and proactive pest management. Understanding these factors ensures the plant’s health, longevity, and contribution to biodiversity.
The future success of Cornus alternifolia Golden Shadows in a changing environment hinges on informed cultivation practices and a commitment to responsible landscape stewardship. By prioritizing its specific needs and recognizing its ecological significance, one can ensure that this ornamental tree continues to thrive, providing aesthetic beauty and ecological value for generations to come. Continued research and observation will further refine our understanding of its resilience and adaptability, allowing for more sustainable integration into diverse landscapes.
